Authors

Discussion

This paper analyses the early works of the first Romanian women novelists and their contributions to the feminist agenda of the period they represent. The timid emergence of political themes in female-authored novels in pre-war Romania mirrors the broader context of political instability and the systemic underrepresentation of women. Before the 19^th century, women were largely excluded from public discourse, with limited opportunities for engagement in literary and extraliterary contexts. It was only during the latter half of the century that they began to gradually gain representation in these areas. A few female novelists emerged during this period (Maria Boucher Movilă, Constanța Duncă-Schiau), however they remain critically marginalised and dismissed today. Similarly, Sofia Nădejde, widely recognised as the author of the first feminist novel in Romanian literature, Patimi [Passions] (1903), navigated a parallel trajectory, though her primary intent was to produce a socialist novel. She is considered a militant novelist by some scholars, while others classify her work as sentimental (Burța-Cernat 2011; Baghiu & Martin 2023). This disparity in her critical reception may be attributed to her shifting political and ideological perspectives. A comparable case is that of Elena Bacaloglu, whose notable works include În luptă [In Combat] (1906) and Două forțe [Two Forces] (1908). In their careers as journalists and political activists, both Nădejde and Bacaloglu initially embraced progressive, emancipatory beliefs, which later evolved into strong conservatism, in the case of Nădejde, and far-right ideologies, in the case of Bacaloglu (Mihăilă 2011; Passmore 2003). Simultaneously, their literary works are categorised as sentimental novels. It was not uncommon for women writers of that era to produce sentimental novels with political undertones, subtly advocating for liberation and empowerment (Cohen 1999; Ellis 2004): this was the strategy chosen by Olteo and Eugenia Ianculescu de Reus, among others. However, it is particularly notable that, in the cases of Nădejde and Bacaloglu, the ideas of liberation and empowerment are intertwined with conservatism and fascism. I have chosen these novels not only for their importance as significant artefacts of our feminist political memory but also for their strong realist elements and their deep connections to societal contexts and the feminist struggles that the authors personally experienced and championed (Epstein-Corbin 2014). In Bacaloglu's case, the work includes an autobiographical dimension that underscores the broader issue of women's underrepresentation during this period, serving as a valuable tool for social inquiry (Reading 2014). Thus, this paper seeks to understand whether early Romanian feminist agendas were built on conservative, far-right ideas disguised as love triangles and adultery, and how this translates into more recent history.<