Authors

Discussion

With the evolution of social media, the term “bots” no longer captures the complexity of actors shaping online discourse. Traditional bots are now joined by “cyborgs”—partially automated accounts with both human oversight and automated actions—alongside networks of trolls and loyal followers. These actors go beyond simple message amplification, blending AI and human input to shape narratives on sensitive topics such as national identity and historical interpretation. This paper examines these propaganda mechanisms through a case study on the discourse surrounding The Traitors, a by the Anti-Corruption Foundation (FBK).

Building on established theories of political bots and social media manipulation (Ferrara et al., 2016; Howard & Woolley, 2018), this study draws from a dataset of over 60,000 comments collected from three episodes of the YouTube series. These comments reveal the diverse tactics of pro-Kremlin cyborg accounts that blend automated engagement (likes, shares) with human-generated content, which presents a personalized, often patriotic, and historically revisionist perspective. Drawing on the concept of “cyber troops” (Bradshaw & Howard, 2017) and the idea of “computational propaganda” (Woolley & Howard, 2016), the paper explores how these semi-automated accounts simulate grassroots support, leveraging pseudo-authentic interactions to build credibility and sway public opinion.

Using frameworks of inauthentic participation and divisive content creation (Stella et al., 2018; Bello & Heckel, 2019), this analysis uncovers distinct typologies within pro-Kremlin propaganda: (1) semi-automated cyborg accounts that alternate between AI-driven responses and human oversight, (2) troll farms tasked with fostering divisive conversations through provocative commentary, and (3) genuine supporters who amplify narratives by aligning themselves with “cyber troops.” This layered structure mirrors broader theories on propaganda networks, where these actors form what is referred to as “distributed digital influence” (Assenmacher et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the analysis situates this activity within Jeffrey Alexander’s theory of “cultural trauma” and the instrumentalization of history in collective identity formation. By reinterpreting Russia’s historical narratives, these propaganda networks engage in cultural boundary-work that seeks to reaffirm a specific nationalist identity while excluding dissenting or “unpatriotic” interpretations.

The findings of this study underscore the implications of cyborg propaganda networks in shaping the digital public sphere. By adapting their tactics to include both human and automated elements, these actors achieve a level of nuance and believability that earlier forms of bots lacked. As cyborgs shape narratives of Russia’s past, they highlight the emerging frontier of hybrid propaganda, where the fusion of automation and human agency deepens the manipulation of history