Authors

Sigita Cerneviciute¹;  ¹ Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki, Finland

Discussion

The Russian Empire was characterized by a deeply entrenched patriarchal society where men held authority in both public and private spheres. Traditional family structures reinforced male dominance and female subservience, with the Orthodox Church shaping societal norms similarly to the Catholic Church in Lithuania. 

In 19th-century Lithuania, violence against women in marriage was disturbingly common, yet rarely acknowledged in public or legal contexts. Roman canon law provided little recourse for women trapped in abusive marriages. Marriage was viewed as a sacred bond that could only be dissolved by death, and divorce was strictly prohibited. Church law allowed only separation mensa et thoro (from bed and board) in cases of adultery, criminal conviction of the spouse, coercion to commit a crime, or extreme cases of violence. The latter required hard proof, thereby upholding the husband’s authority and framing obedience as a woman’s duty. Many regarded domestic abuse as a cultural norm, seeing it as an everyday reality akin to poverty or labor. In rural communities, neighbors often refrained from intervening in family disputes, viewing them as private matters. Alcohol misuse played a significant role in family violence, with excessive drinking leading to unpredictable and violent behavior. 

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, intellectuals and reformers began to emphasize the link between alcohol and domestic violence. While there was growing sympathy for women's plight, the responsibility for initiating change often shifted back to them. Figures like Zemaite advised mothers to raise their children without exposure to alcohol, advocating for a new generation that could break the cycle of violence and abuse. This shift in discourse highlighted the complex interplay of societal expectations and individual responsibility in addressing the issue of domestic violence.