Authors

Discussion

The governance of cyberspace originated within the academic institutions and private actors who constructed the internet, thus giving rise to a multi-stakeholder approach to digital governance. But multi-stakeholder governance has always existed within limits - the U.S. government has retained power to shape digital norms in ways that reflect its views, values, and interests. The rise of non-Western powers, however, has challenged the U.S. hegemonic position. Over the last decade or so, the Sino-Russian bloc has been pressing its internet governance reform agenda, promoting the notions of ‘information security’ and ‘cyber sovereignty’, while pushing for a state-centred UN cybercrime convention. 

            The overall aim of this study is to examine the emergence, diffusion, and internalization of cybersecurity norms in Greater Central Asia (GCA) with a particular focus on China’s norm-building efforts in the region. The study is composed of three themed sections. Section 1 offers a detailed analysis of China’s growing technological dominance in GCA via its Digital Silk Road initiative, focusing on the upgrading of internet connections (Section 1.1.), the expansion of the 5G communications network (Section 1.2.), the design and construction of smart cities (Section 1.3.), and the introduction of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (Section 1.4.). Section 2 elucidates the role of host countries in shaping the Digital Silk Road agenda, with a particular focus on Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan’s digital development strategies and regulatory frameworks (Section 2.1.) as well as the host countries’ demands for technology transfer and local job creation (Section 2.2.). Section 3 charts the emergence and evolution of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization’s (SCO) cyberspace norms, focusing on the ‘International Code of Conduct for State Behaviour in Cyberspace’. Particular attention is given to two parallel processes: the member states’ norm internalization (Section 3.1.) and the promotion of the SCO stance on cybersecurity within the UN forum (Section 3.2.).

            The purpose of the conclusion is threefold: 1) to map out China’s expanding digital footprint in GCA as well as strategic responses adopted by the host countries, 2) to elucidate the causal mechanisms underlying the process of cybersecurity norm emergence, diffusion, and internalization in the GCA region, and 3) to assess the Sino-Russian bloc efforts to transform the liberal international order by supporting counter-norms and developing competing institutions in the realm of cybersecurity.